Cultural Re-branding of the NBA Throughout History
By: Kalani Dantley
Throughout the history of sport, one of the most disputed arguments has been what the exact relationship between sport and contemporary society is. While some argue that sport is a “mirror of society,” the reality is that sport is a “product and producer” of society. Instead of viewing sport as a one-way relationship between entities, sports need to be recognized to society as a two-way reinforcing relationship between entities (Schultz, 2009). The NBA has been argued to be the most representatively American of the major sporting leagues, mainly due to the fact that its existence is closely linked to the comprehensive forces that shape contemporary American society. When thinking of the NBA, I believe it is essential to examine the importance of contextual sport criticism in order to look at the history of the NBA as a cultural practice, rather than just thinking of the NBA as a place of personal achievement and entertainment (Schultz, 2009).
Many do not know the history of the NBA and the major improvements it has made compared to when the league was first established. The NBA was perceived negatively and looked at as being too regional, too black, and drug-infested. This goes hand-in-hand with the “image crisis” that occurred due to the high percentage of African American players and the pre-determined views that society had historically been introduced to. Because of these cultural issues, the NBA struggled economically and also politically within its beginning years until Commissioner David Stern made a complete turn-around with the league, picking it up and placing it back on its feet. After dealing with the cultural, economic, and political mishaps that the NBA has witnessed over the past 60 years, it is now an organized, oriented, and experienced entity, which leads to how the national league plays such a big role in not just sport, but in contemporary American society as a whole. Sport has proven to be a culture industry, in that it represents a moneymaking site for the aggregation of capital by manufacturing practices and pleasures for crowds and audiences.
In my opinion, culture plays the biggest role in contemporary society, and also with the NBA. Since 1951 the NBA has evolved so much culturally, and most of this started to occur with the hiring of commissioner David Stern. When the NBA was first established, majority of the teams struggled in making profit and the attendance levels were declining more and more by the year. Throughout time, the NBA culture has struggled with stereotypes attributed to the image crisis of African Americans and their supposed linkage with drugs. The problem with the NBA was that culturally the players were looked at as “selfish, lazy, lacking motivation, irresponsible, and overpaid” (Hughes, 2004). The media tried to use the illusion of drug abuse as evidence of the pathological abandonment of the African American men who prevailed the NBA and the American nation as a whole. David Stern dealt with this by understanding contemporary society as a culture. Stern used these cultural logics, utilizing capitalism, in order to blossom the NBA into the establishment that it is now and “the NBA has re-branded itself as both an institution of racial uplift and an entrepreneur of racial flair, a move that, in practice, has involved the NBA in a somewhat conflicted double role of discipliner and promoter of the race” (Hughes, 2004).
In conclusion, the NBA envisioned the race problem as one imported from outside its own boundaries so that it could be effectively managed. Many people do not always know the details of sport in history and it is important to realize the struggle that African American athletes underwent in the beginning years of the NBA. Lastly, when thinking of the NBA, it is essential to examine the importance of contextual sport criticism in order to critically analyze the history of the NBA as a cultural practice, rather than just thinking of the NBA as a place of personal achievement and entertainment.
Works Cited
Hughes, G. (2004). Managing black guys: Representation, corporate culture, and the
NBA. Sociology of Sport Journal, 21(2), 163-184.
Schultz, J. (2009). The History of Sports in America. University of Maryland, College
Park, MD.
Recommended Readings
Carter, R. (2004). Racial issues front and center in most Black Pro basketball. New York
Amsterdam News. 95(13). 10-32.
Maddox, Jr., Alton H. (2004). Field Blacks ineligible for NBA privileges. New York
Amsterdam News. 95(50). p. 12
An almost impossible dream. (1977, March 30). The Washington Post, p. A20.
Friday, May 15, 2009
Thursday, May 14, 2009
And the Vote goes to…Men’s Sports!
An analysis of the popularity differences between Men’s and Women’s Sports
By: Julie Silvestri
Women in sport are a common image in modern society; Men in sport were always a common image in society - How can a country known for its freedom and equality explain such a phenomenon? The reputation and recognition of women’s sports has the potential to deeply affect communities outside the sports world, and not always in a positive way. Although women’s and men’s sports have been outlined to be equal, women continue to be less recognized when it comes to the popular vote.
With the passing of Title IX in 1972, women began to be awarded their equality. It “outlawed gender discrimination in any school sports and any other federally funded education program” (Gregory, 2007, 49). Title IX acted as a foundation for women to enter the sporting arena. It increased the number of women playing and the number of collegiate athletic scholarships awarded (Vest, 2007). Colleges equalized their athletics by adding women’s sports, and some had to additionally cut men’s sports to compensate and comply with the new law. The reduction of men’s collegiate sports to accommodate women made an impression that “men’s programs must be cut to obtain gender equality” (McClung, 25). With the added negativity, women were subjected to more obstacles in the struggle for the right to compete. Title IX allowed women everywhere to feel entitled to equality. With more role models to aspire to, women were opened up to a whole new world where it was almost acceptable for them to be as physical as their male counterparts.
Prior to the passing of Title IX, some women had their way with sports in the roaring 1920’s. The 1920’s in America signified an era of change, hope, and a strive for equality. The 1920’s followed World War 1 as America flourished with a sense of community, identity and consumption. The numbers of community recreation centers rose and Americans had more leisure time to spend participating in and watching sports and buying sport products to support the new obsession (Schultz, 2009). The women athletes were compared to the ‘flappers’ of the 1920’s with their similar physique, “independence and willful, adventurous spirit” (Cahn, 36). Women in sport became heroes for all American women. Gertrude Ederle challenged male athleticism as she swam the English Channel, two hours faster than any male predecessor (Cahn, 1994). Suzanne Lenglen, a European tennis star, created a new feminine style for women athletes as she brought fashion into the game (Cahn, 1994). Helen Wills went on a six-year winning streak in American tennis (Cahn, 1994). These women became athlete-celebrities as they were celebrated for their successes (Schultz, 2009). Ederle, Langlen and Wills were outstanding sports stars, who achieved success with both masculine and feminine characteristics (Cahn, 1994). They represented a new set of standards for women - to be different than the stereotypical housewife.
With the outstanding female achievement in sports, it’s difficult to understand the view some have of women in sport today. Here at the University of Maryland, the inequality between men and women’s sports is prominent. Many sports on campus have both men’s and women’s team, including basketball, soccer and lacrosse. Each is reported on daily in The Diamondback, but rarely with equal representation. Take women’s and men’s basketball for example. We know sports are found on the back pages of The Diamondback. Throughout basketball season it’s guaranteed to find Greivis Vasquez, Landon Milbourne, plus other starting players on the Men’s team, featured with a large picture and articles about their performances. The women, however, only received attention once the men were knocked out of the NCAA tournament – a little unfair. Recently, the top two players from the women’s team, Kristi Toliver and Marissa Coleman, were drafted second and third in the WNBA draft – they were awarded the bottom right-hand corner of The Diamondback. I can imagine if a star of the Men’s team had this success, his face would be the front page. Moreover, the news of the draft was hard to come by for other Marylander’s because there’s no evidence it was printed in The Baltimore Sun or The Washington Post. It’s sad to see that here, in our ‘home,’ women still struggle for athletic equality.
Although Title IX and the women athletes from the 1920’s paved the way for future women, there remains a struggle. No big change is evident in modern society as it’s easy to find inequalities in media coverage, fans in attendance and recognition. This issue impacts society and our culture in a negative way. In society, women want to excel academically, at home and physically, however it’s easy to be led down a less physical route when men are the athletic role models. This issue shows our culture continues to value male physicality over women’s and it’s a struggle that will continue to be studied, fought and hopefully, resolved.
Recommended Readings
Basketball's First Ladies of Dunk. (2008, November 28). Wall Street Journal –
Eastern Edition, Retrieved April 21, 2009, from Academic Search Premier Database.
Equality grows over the years. (n.d.). USA Today, Retrieved April 21, 2009, from
Academic Search Premier Database.
McCabe, C. (2008, April). GENDER EFFECTS ON SPECTATORS' ATTITUDES
TOWARD WNBA BASKETBALL. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 36(3), 347-358. Retrieved April 21, 2009, doi:10.2224/sbp.2008.36.3.347
Mean, L., & Kassing, J. (2008, April). “I Would Just Like to be Known as an
Athlete”: Managing Hegemony, Femininity, and Heterosexuality in Female Sport. Western Journal of Communication, 72(2), 126-144. Retrieved April 21, 2009, doi:10.1080/10570310802038564
References
Cahn, S. (1994). Grass-roots growth and sexual sensation in the flapper era. In S.
Cahn, Coming on Strong (pp. 31-41; 44-47; 51-54). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Gregory, S. (2007, August 27). Uneven Playing Field. Time, 170(9), 49-50.
Retrieved April 20, 2009, from Academic Search Premier Database.
McClung, L., & Spencer, N. (2001, October). Women and Sport in the 1990s:
Reflections on 'Embracing Stars, Ignoring Players.'. Journal of Sport Management, 15(4), 318. Retrieved April 20, 2009, from Academic Search Premier Database.
Schultz, J. (2009). The History of Sport in America, 7: Sport’s “Golden Age” (?).
Lecture presented in KNES293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Vest, B., & Masterson, G. (2007, December). Title IX and Its Effect on Sports
Programs in High School and Collegiate Athletics. Coach & Athletic Director, 77(5), 60-62. Retrieved April 20, 2009, from Academic Search Premier Database.
By: Julie Silvestri
Women in sport are a common image in modern society; Men in sport were always a common image in society - How can a country known for its freedom and equality explain such a phenomenon? The reputation and recognition of women’s sports has the potential to deeply affect communities outside the sports world, and not always in a positive way. Although women’s and men’s sports have been outlined to be equal, women continue to be less recognized when it comes to the popular vote.
With the passing of Title IX in 1972, women began to be awarded their equality. It “outlawed gender discrimination in any school sports and any other federally funded education program” (Gregory, 2007, 49). Title IX acted as a foundation for women to enter the sporting arena. It increased the number of women playing and the number of collegiate athletic scholarships awarded (Vest, 2007). Colleges equalized their athletics by adding women’s sports, and some had to additionally cut men’s sports to compensate and comply with the new law. The reduction of men’s collegiate sports to accommodate women made an impression that “men’s programs must be cut to obtain gender equality” (McClung, 25). With the added negativity, women were subjected to more obstacles in the struggle for the right to compete. Title IX allowed women everywhere to feel entitled to equality. With more role models to aspire to, women were opened up to a whole new world where it was almost acceptable for them to be as physical as their male counterparts.
Prior to the passing of Title IX, some women had their way with sports in the roaring 1920’s. The 1920’s in America signified an era of change, hope, and a strive for equality. The 1920’s followed World War 1 as America flourished with a sense of community, identity and consumption. The numbers of community recreation centers rose and Americans had more leisure time to spend participating in and watching sports and buying sport products to support the new obsession (Schultz, 2009). The women athletes were compared to the ‘flappers’ of the 1920’s with their similar physique, “independence and willful, adventurous spirit” (Cahn, 36). Women in sport became heroes for all American women. Gertrude Ederle challenged male athleticism as she swam the English Channel, two hours faster than any male predecessor (Cahn, 1994). Suzanne Lenglen, a European tennis star, created a new feminine style for women athletes as she brought fashion into the game (Cahn, 1994). Helen Wills went on a six-year winning streak in American tennis (Cahn, 1994). These women became athlete-celebrities as they were celebrated for their successes (Schultz, 2009). Ederle, Langlen and Wills were outstanding sports stars, who achieved success with both masculine and feminine characteristics (Cahn, 1994). They represented a new set of standards for women - to be different than the stereotypical housewife.
With the outstanding female achievement in sports, it’s difficult to understand the view some have of women in sport today. Here at the University of Maryland, the inequality between men and women’s sports is prominent. Many sports on campus have both men’s and women’s team, including basketball, soccer and lacrosse. Each is reported on daily in The Diamondback, but rarely with equal representation. Take women’s and men’s basketball for example. We know sports are found on the back pages of The Diamondback. Throughout basketball season it’s guaranteed to find Greivis Vasquez, Landon Milbourne, plus other starting players on the Men’s team, featured with a large picture and articles about their performances. The women, however, only received attention once the men were knocked out of the NCAA tournament – a little unfair. Recently, the top two players from the women’s team, Kristi Toliver and Marissa Coleman, were drafted second and third in the WNBA draft – they were awarded the bottom right-hand corner of The Diamondback. I can imagine if a star of the Men’s team had this success, his face would be the front page. Moreover, the news of the draft was hard to come by for other Marylander’s because there’s no evidence it was printed in The Baltimore Sun or The Washington Post. It’s sad to see that here, in our ‘home,’ women still struggle for athletic equality.
Although Title IX and the women athletes from the 1920’s paved the way for future women, there remains a struggle. No big change is evident in modern society as it’s easy to find inequalities in media coverage, fans in attendance and recognition. This issue impacts society and our culture in a negative way. In society, women want to excel academically, at home and physically, however it’s easy to be led down a less physical route when men are the athletic role models. This issue shows our culture continues to value male physicality over women’s and it’s a struggle that will continue to be studied, fought and hopefully, resolved.
Recommended Readings
Basketball's First Ladies of Dunk. (2008, November 28). Wall Street Journal –
Eastern Edition, Retrieved April 21, 2009, from Academic Search Premier Database.
Equality grows over the years. (n.d.). USA Today, Retrieved April 21, 2009, from
Academic Search Premier Database.
McCabe, C. (2008, April). GENDER EFFECTS ON SPECTATORS' ATTITUDES
TOWARD WNBA BASKETBALL. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 36(3), 347-358. Retrieved April 21, 2009, doi:10.2224/sbp.2008.36.3.347
Mean, L., & Kassing, J. (2008, April). “I Would Just Like to be Known as an
Athlete”: Managing Hegemony, Femininity, and Heterosexuality in Female Sport. Western Journal of Communication, 72(2), 126-144. Retrieved April 21, 2009, doi:10.1080/10570310802038564
References
Cahn, S. (1994). Grass-roots growth and sexual sensation in the flapper era. In S.
Cahn, Coming on Strong (pp. 31-41; 44-47; 51-54). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Gregory, S. (2007, August 27). Uneven Playing Field. Time, 170(9), 49-50.
Retrieved April 20, 2009, from Academic Search Premier Database.
McClung, L., & Spencer, N. (2001, October). Women and Sport in the 1990s:
Reflections on 'Embracing Stars, Ignoring Players.'. Journal of Sport Management, 15(4), 318. Retrieved April 20, 2009, from Academic Search Premier Database.
Schultz, J. (2009). The History of Sport in America, 7: Sport’s “Golden Age” (?).
Lecture presented in KNES293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Vest, B., & Masterson, G. (2007, December). Title IX and Its Effect on Sports
Programs in High School and Collegiate Athletics. Coach & Athletic Director, 77(5), 60-62. Retrieved April 20, 2009, from Academic Search Premier Database.
Pro-Athlete or Sex Symbol? : The Portrayal of Women in Sports
By: Sandra Castellón
There is a very long history of sports in America. It has been around since the beginning of this nation. Something that is evident in sport is its reflection of the values and attitudes society has in that point in time. “Sport is a product and producer of society” (Schultz, 2009a). Each generation goes through some struggle and it is evident through ‘who’ we get to see participate in sport. African Americans struggled to break into sports, and when they finally did break into sports, they had to fight for equal treatment and for respect from society. Then, there was a struggle for women. This struggle still lives on. Yes, it is true that women are now participating in basketball, soccer, tennis, volleyball, golf, swimming, track & field, and hundreds of other sports, there are also leagues and organizations for women, but is there full equality between men’s sports and women’s sports? Do women get paid the same as men for participating in the same sport? Do women’s sports receive the same amount of attention through the media as men’s sports? Or the same recognition after they have accomplished something so amazing? These are all hot topics of discussion of sports in contemporary society. One of the things that may be interesting to investigate is the portrayal of women athletes through the media.
Gender plays a big role in how an athlete is viewed. Our society has shaped a stereotypical female athlete and a stereotypical male athlete, so when the public becomes witness to something out of the ordinary, it is sometimes ridiculed. This was the biggest challenge for women to overcome in the twentieth century. In order for women to participate in sport, they had to comply to sports reserved for their gender. These “gender appropriate sports” (Schultz, 2009b) for women, limited them to sports that expressed grace and beauty. It was unacceptable to see a woman play rough and tumble sports that required strength because they were then labeled as too ‘manly’ or as ‘lesbian’, but women like Babe Didrikson, Billie Jean King, Gertrude Ederle, and so many others didn’t only prove that they were capable of engaging in these type of sports, they also proved that they could perform as good or even better than men.
Although there has been a lot of change in our society, some attitudes from long ago of women are still present. For example, the notion that women should always behave ladylike. Image is a big component that can either favor a woman’s career or hurt it. Nowadays, in many sports, women wear tight, exposing outfits, such as in tennis, volleyball, swimming, competitive cheerleading, and gymnastics. Due to this, women can easily become ‘sex symbols’ to the public for their high level of attractiveness. In a journal article by Michael Messner and other colleagues (Messner et al, 2003), an investigation of how the media portrays women was carried out. They found that certain sport TV networks, such as KABC, presented coverage that “tended much more to trivialization of women athletes and sexualized humor and put-downs of women in general” (Messner et al, 2003). Basically, women athletes are exploited because more attention is given to their physical attractiveness rather than their accomplishments in sport. An example of this: in mid July, after the World Cup Championship in which the U.S. soccer team won, KABC and KCBS constantly went back to the story of how the soccer player Brandi Chastain had stripped off her jersey, revealing her sports bra, after the victory (Messner et al, 2003). Obviously, sports coverage of women’s sports can be degrading instead of celebratory and respectful of a woman’s accomplishment.
I would think that women athletes wouldn’t want their potential of being ‘eye candy’ overshadow the great athlete they are, but apparently I’m mistaken. Some athletes such as Olympic swimmer Jenny Thompson, high jumper Amy Cuff, and 200-meter breaststroke holder, Amanda Beard have posed in either Playboy, Maxim or FHM magazine (Drape, 2004). Can this be called another “Flapper Era” (Cahn, 1994)? Women are breaking away from the traditional athlete façade. Women are taking much riskier actions. But the question is what are the reasons they are doing this for? Amy Cuff confesses she did it for the money, “It’s really hard to make that kind of money in the real world” (Drape, 2004). Some women might do it for more exposure of themselves to the world or simply for the fun of it. Maybe their doing it to send the message that they can do what they please without facing ramifications for it in the society we live in today. Whatever the reason may be, they have exacerbated the media’s view of women as sex symbols.
Many years ago, the Olympic Committee or any sport organization might have severely punished women athletes for this type of exposure of themselves, so women of today are taking advantage of the freedom they possess to make their own decisions of how they want to be portrayed in the media. Like always, there are different perspectives among people on one subject. In respects to how women portray themselves, some may think that women are doing certain sports a favor by making them more popular through their physicality. Others might think that women athletes are in fact hurting themselves more than helping themselves when they expose their bodies in provocative magazines. A consequence of such exposure might be that people will first remember a photo of the sports star in a magazine rather than first recognizing them as a pro athlete. Other consequences might be further sexualized humor, trivialization, and more put-downs of women in general, in sport broadcasts of women’s sports. Women have gone too far, to turn back to humiliation and degradation of self.
Recommended Readings:
· Araton H. (2001, June 28). Women as Athletes: The Pictures Don’t Lie. New York Times, pg.D2.
· Tuggle C.A., & Owens A. (1999). A Descriptive Analysis of NBC’s Coverage of the Centennial Olympics. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Vol. 23, 171-184.
Works Cited:
· Cahn, S. (1994). Grass-roots growth and sexual sensation in the flapper era. In S. Cahn, Coming On Strong (pp.31-41). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
· Drape, J. (2004, August 12). Lots of Skin But Not Much Fuss As Olympians Strike Pinup Pose. New York Times, pg.A1, D7.
· Messner M. (2003). Silence, Sports Bras and Wrestling Porn: Women in Televised Sports News and Highlights Shows. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Vol.27, 38-51.
· Schultz, J. (2009a). The Relationship Between Sport and History. Lecture presented in KNES293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
· Schultz, J. (2009b). The 1970’s Quest for Equity In Women’s Sport. Lecture presented in KNES293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
NBC’s Olympic Coverage of Women’s Sports:
Skewing the Reality
By Alyssa Faigle
While watching the 2008 Beijing Olympics this past summer, a viewer would assume that the coverage they are seeing on NBC (or one of its sister networks) is an accurate depiction of the events occurring in China. However, further examination of the Olympic games shown on television reveals that the public is being shown the events and stories that the NBC network chooses to air. The network skews the Olympic reality by showing events that appeal to both men and women in primetime in order to gain a wider audience. However, this profit-making technique also highlights the gender biases and preconceived notions about women that are present in our society.
Firstly, NBC has feminized the sports shown in primetime in order to gain the biggest audience possible. By showing the events that would appeal to women in the popular primetime spot on television, NBC has increased their number of viewers. They have obtained women viewers who might not have watched during this time as opposed to if a more masculine sport was shown. In reference to NBC’s coverage of the 1996 Summer Olympic games in Atlanta, Andrews (2006) writes, “NBC manufactured its own Olympic reality centered around events deemed appropriate to female viewers and infused with sentiment intended to resonate with the female psyche…NBC was complicit in unscientifically simulating traditional feminine sensibilities within and through its broadcasts” (Andrews, 2006, page 60). In these particular games, NBC’s primetime Olympic reality was centered around gymnastics and diving – two sports that have been socially constructed to imply femininity and thus, appeal to the female audience. However, coverage of the women’s basketball, soccer, and softball teams were rarely given any air during primetime despite their success (Andrews, 2006, page 61). Since NBC’s coverage of the Olympic games is something that is constructed in order to maximize profit, it could be said that the Olympics shown on television are “fictive”. Although similar to the word “fiction”, “fictive” is something that is made, not made up (Schultz, 2009a). NBC’s primetime Olympic events are fictive since the network skews the reality of the games by showing events that will appeal to both women and men and will make NBC the greatest profit.
Additionally, NBC’s coverage of the Olympic games can also be bias and reinforce our society’s social construction of gender. In one study done at the University of North Texas, researchers looked at NBC’s televised coverage of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, and the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. The study argues that even though the biases made in the coverages of men’s and women’s sports has diminished from the Barcelona to the Sydney Olympic Games, there are still preconceived notions about gender in the broadcasts. The researchers noticed that the commentators of the events talk a lot about the physical attributes of the female athletes while they focus on the men’s athleticism (Kolsti, 2004). One of things the researchers noticed about the coverage of female events versus male events was that, “Commentators referred to female athletes by their first names only, instead of by their first and last names or just their last names, approximately 60 percent of the time…which is called the ‘hierarchy of naming’. The use of hierarchy of naming infantilizes women and presumes a lesser status than male athletes” (Kolsti, 2004, paragraph 10). In addition to this study’s other findings, it could be concluded that the gender bias in the televised Olympics is a long residual of the “Crises of White Masculinity” that occurred between the 1880s and 1920s in America. During this time period, sport was seen as a way to fight back feminizing pressures while testing a man’s bravery (Schultz, 2009b). Thus, commentary on a men’s event would include how strong and powerful men are while a reporter would note the physicality and appearance of a female in the same sport. Even though the commentary of the Olympics has become less bias over the years, there is still some hidden partiality between men’s and women’s events that could be caused by the continuity of the “Crises of White Masculinity”.
NBC is a business whose main goal is to make the maximum amount of profit possible by airing the Olympic games. The network’s televised games are fictive since the viewers are only shown the events that the company chooses to air. NBC wants the primetime events to appeal to women so they will gain more viewers, yet there is still sexist reporting in women’s Olympic events. These differing commentaries could be a long residual from when sport was viewed as a way to fight back femininity in men. Although a viewer of the Olympic games might think that the events they are watching on television are true to the happenings in real life, NBC skews the reality of the games in order to make money while consequently reinforcing the gender biases of our society.
Works Cited
Andrews, D. L. (2006). Sport-Commerce-Culture: Essays on Sport in the Late Capitalist America. New York: Peter Lang.Kolsti, N. (2004, July 15). Gender bias still evident in Olympics coverage, study says. North Texas Daily. Retrieved from http://web3.unt.edu/news/story.cfm?story=8927
Schultz, J. (2009a). Module I: Theoretical Foundations 1. Lecture presented in KNES498E. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Schultz, J. (2009b). Module III: Sport & the Emergence of Modern America, 1865-1920. Lecture presented in KNES498E. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Recommended Readings
Billings, A. C., & Eastman, S. T. (1999). Gender Parity in the Olympics: Hyping Women Athletes, Favoring Men Athletes. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 23. doi:10.1177/0193723599232003Carter, B. (2008, August 24). On TV, Timing Is Everything at the Olympics. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/25/sports/olympics/25nbc.html?_r=1
What Could Have Been the Next Michael Jordan! By Tanner Nelson
The next Michael Jordan was what he had to live up too. The possibilities were supposed to be endless for this superstar. However, one fatal night not only shocked the world of college basketball, but also the University of Maryland, as Len Bias was pronounced dead due to an overdose of cocaine. Bias was thought to be someone who could challenge the career of Michael Jordan and be the next great legend in the National Basketball Association. However, there were other side effects that resulted in his death. Recruiting violations, drug arrests, and political resignations all were caused by Bias’s death that had their own significance upon the University of Maryland and the surrounding society (Hilliard, 1993).
The death of Len Bias was more than the passing of a person and basketball superstar for the University of Maryland. The social reasons surrounding the drugs involved around the area of College Park, Maryland, forced tougher recruiting attempts for coaches. Parents did not want to send their children to school at Maryland and potentially be involved in drug activity. The publicity surrounding Bias’s death was so great that everyone knew what was happening and how it happened. The influence of the media hurt Maryland’s recruiting, and eventually, put the University under investigation by the NCAA. Not many people realized that the death of a collegiate basketball player could lead to such tremendous side effects (Hilliard, 1993).
One of the more interesting political concerns involved with Lenny Bias’s death involve the actions of University of Maryland Chancellor John Slaughter. When the Chancellor retired, it showed the “illumination of the college President in-relation to big time intercollegiate sport.” John Slaughter was an example of how the major University representatives affected collegiate sport. From Dr. Schultz’s lecture, history of political sport is about conflict and power. Slaughter held a very high position, and his portrayal of the entire Len Bias situation displays how high-end university employers have the power to reform intercollegiate sport (Hilliard, 1993) (Schultz, 2009). This political power shown by upper level members of the university can have an educational impact that most do not realize. Behind the scrutiny of the tragedy of Len Bias, there is another form of controversy involved in education. According to the New York Times, Bias’s coach, Charles “Lefty” Driesell, was not concerned with academics and the graduation rate of his players. For example, Len Bias was supposedly only nine credits short of graduating with a bachelor’s degree, but ultimately after his death, it was found that he needed twenty-one. The day after his death, the Maryland men’s basketball team’s academic advisor quit because of the coach’s lack of care about education (“The New York Times,” 1986). I think that this proves true for other schools, but the death of Len Bias supports the idea of athletic supremacy but intellectual inferiority (Freedman, 1992). The term “student-athlete” is used very loosely, and the death of Lenny Bias showed how a little bit of political power and a lack of educational support can remove “student” from this term.
The importance of Len Bias’s death not only exposed academic, political, and drug- related controversies, but also was relative to stereotypes from the past. The emergence of the African American athlete was established during the time in which racism was prominent; this did not give African Americans the same advantages that whites possessed. I think that Len Bias’s death was a signal that there was still some interracial segregation based on the articles that followed the tragedy (Schultz, 2009b). For example, all three articles that I have cited include a portion on the lack of focus on education from Coach Driesell, which supports athletic superiority but academic inferiority (Freedman, 1992). Lenny Bias’s death not only hurt those around him, but also African Americans looking for that next superstar that they could dream to be.
Imagine being called the next Michael Jordan. Now imagine everything disappearing, just like that! This is essentially what happened to Len Bias and the University of Maryland. Len was in position to be playing professional basketball and be the next superstar. Maryland was looking to use Len as a springboard to land more top shelf recruits, but that is all gone. Len Bias’s death affected more than a few close friends and supporters of this university. His death was implicated with politics, coaching, and educational aspects of the University of Maryland!
Works Cited
Freedman, M (1993).“Playing ball.” American Scholar. 62, 312-315.
Hilliard, D (1993). “Lenny, Lefty, and the Chancellor: The Len Bias Tragedy and the Search for Reform in Big-Time College Basketball (Book Review).” Sociology of Sport Journal. 10, 213-215.
Schultz, J. (2009). The Relationship between Sport and History. Lecture presented in KNES293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
The Scandal Behind the Tragedy. (1986, June 28). New York Times (1857-Current file), 26.
Retrieved April 13, 2009, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times (1851 - 2005) database. (Document ID: 120550992)
Recommended Readings
The Scandal Behind the Tragedy. (1986, June 28). New York Times (1857-Current file), 26.
Retrieved April 13, 2009, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times (1851 - 2005) database. (Document ID: 120550992)
Freedman, M (1993).“Playing ball.” American Scholar. 62, 312-315
The death of Len Bias was more than the passing of a person and basketball superstar for the University of Maryland. The social reasons surrounding the drugs involved around the area of College Park, Maryland, forced tougher recruiting attempts for coaches. Parents did not want to send their children to school at Maryland and potentially be involved in drug activity. The publicity surrounding Bias’s death was so great that everyone knew what was happening and how it happened. The influence of the media hurt Maryland’s recruiting, and eventually, put the University under investigation by the NCAA. Not many people realized that the death of a collegiate basketball player could lead to such tremendous side effects (Hilliard, 1993).
One of the more interesting political concerns involved with Lenny Bias’s death involve the actions of University of Maryland Chancellor John Slaughter. When the Chancellor retired, it showed the “illumination of the college President in-relation to big time intercollegiate sport.” John Slaughter was an example of how the major University representatives affected collegiate sport. From Dr. Schultz’s lecture, history of political sport is about conflict and power. Slaughter held a very high position, and his portrayal of the entire Len Bias situation displays how high-end university employers have the power to reform intercollegiate sport (Hilliard, 1993) (Schultz, 2009). This political power shown by upper level members of the university can have an educational impact that most do not realize. Behind the scrutiny of the tragedy of Len Bias, there is another form of controversy involved in education. According to the New York Times, Bias’s coach, Charles “Lefty” Driesell, was not concerned with academics and the graduation rate of his players. For example, Len Bias was supposedly only nine credits short of graduating with a bachelor’s degree, but ultimately after his death, it was found that he needed twenty-one. The day after his death, the Maryland men’s basketball team’s academic advisor quit because of the coach’s lack of care about education (“The New York Times,” 1986). I think that this proves true for other schools, but the death of Len Bias supports the idea of athletic supremacy but intellectual inferiority (Freedman, 1992). The term “student-athlete” is used very loosely, and the death of Lenny Bias showed how a little bit of political power and a lack of educational support can remove “student” from this term.
The importance of Len Bias’s death not only exposed academic, political, and drug- related controversies, but also was relative to stereotypes from the past. The emergence of the African American athlete was established during the time in which racism was prominent; this did not give African Americans the same advantages that whites possessed. I think that Len Bias’s death was a signal that there was still some interracial segregation based on the articles that followed the tragedy (Schultz, 2009b). For example, all three articles that I have cited include a portion on the lack of focus on education from Coach Driesell, which supports athletic superiority but academic inferiority (Freedman, 1992). Lenny Bias’s death not only hurt those around him, but also African Americans looking for that next superstar that they could dream to be.
Imagine being called the next Michael Jordan. Now imagine everything disappearing, just like that! This is essentially what happened to Len Bias and the University of Maryland. Len was in position to be playing professional basketball and be the next superstar. Maryland was looking to use Len as a springboard to land more top shelf recruits, but that is all gone. Len Bias’s death affected more than a few close friends and supporters of this university. His death was implicated with politics, coaching, and educational aspects of the University of Maryland!
Works Cited
Freedman, M (1993).“Playing ball.” American Scholar. 62, 312-315.
Hilliard, D (1993). “Lenny, Lefty, and the Chancellor: The Len Bias Tragedy and the Search for Reform in Big-Time College Basketball (Book Review).” Sociology of Sport Journal. 10, 213-215.
Schultz, J. (2009). The Relationship between Sport and History. Lecture presented in KNES293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
The Scandal Behind the Tragedy. (1986, June 28). New York Times (1857-Current file), 26.
Retrieved April 13, 2009, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times (1851 - 2005) database. (Document ID: 120550992)
Recommended Readings
The Scandal Behind the Tragedy. (1986, June 28). New York Times (1857-Current file), 26.
Retrieved April 13, 2009, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times (1851 - 2005) database. (Document ID: 120550992)
Freedman, M (1993).“Playing ball.” American Scholar. 62, 312-315
Wednesday, May 13, 2009
The Riot for Revolution: Maurice Richard and the Remaking of Quebec
By: Gabe Kleinfeld
There are few things more important to Canadians than hockey, and in Quebec, the Montreal Canadiens hockey team is followed with near religious fervor. Maurice Richard, a Canadiens star in the 1950’s was more than a hockey player; he was a French Canadian icon. His successes were successes for French Canadians, and the Quebecois followed his every move. It was the suspension of Richard after a questionable call in 1955 that would alter Canadian history forever, and begin Quebec’s Quiet Revolution, in which the French language and culture would prevail over the English. The Richard Riot, as it was called, was Canada’s version of “the shot heard ‘round the world”, an incident that initiated a revolution.
As the star of the Canadiens, Maurice Richard was the object of many harsh plays from opposing players. He was the prototypical athlete-celebrity in Montreal, and was a cultural and political symbol (Schultz, 2009a). French Canadians saw attacks on Richard as attacks on themselves as a people and a culture, and struggled to wrest respect and power away from English Canadians in the political arena. The final straw was the suspension of Richard by Commissioner Clarence Campbell after a questionable hit. Montrealers saw the suspension as unjust and severe, but on a deeper level they believed the suspension was no more than an Anglo-Canadian exerting power over a French Canadian. The schism would be emblematic of the constant battle between English and French in Canada. During Richard’s first game of the suspension, a riot broke out at the arena in protest of Campbell’s attendance at the game. A teargas bomb was detonated inside, sending fans outside to riot on the streets of Montreal. Over $100,000 worth of damage was caused emblematic of a society pushed too far. This is a great example of the dialectic thesis of sports as a product and producer of society (Schultz, 2009b). Montrealers saw the invasion of hockey as the invasion of their culture and fought for their rights. Sports had provoked the riot, and so much of the societal feelings permeated sports. The riot allowed French Canadians to finally come out and express their frustration as the forgotten people of Canada. They saw Richard’s suspension as an intrusion of their rights and saw the opportunity to show cultural pride and power.
The results of the Richard Riot were felt almost immediately, as a new wave of radicalism was sweeping Quebec, characterized by French Canadians coming to power in Quebec’s parliament. The riot is seen as the first exhibition of powerful French nationalism, and led the way for the Quiet Revolution. In this light, we see the function of sports as a precursor for social change. For years, Quebecois were neglected nationally, yet little was done. However, when a French Canadian hockey player was threatened, it seems the entire province of Quebec sprang into action to defend their hero and their values. The Richard Riot is a moment that transcends sports because it was about more than just hockey: it was about defending one’s culture and empowering a people. When a rioter was asked if he loved Richard, he responded: “Richard, who’s he?” The riot was simply the catalyst for the revolution, one that affected hockey fans and non-hockey fans alike (Katz, 1998). The proof of how profound the riot was in Quebec politics can be seen in the long residuals of French nationalism (Schultz, 2009c): since the riot, French prevailed as a language and a culture in Quebec, overpowering English to the point of a proposed secession by Quebec from Canada in 1995. French is the primary language in Quebec, as English is not required. French premiers were elected beginning in 1960 with Jean Lesage, the first election after the riot. Quebec continues to maintain a separate culture than the rest of Canada, using a civil law system as opposed to the British influenced common law system prevalent in other provinces. All these French nationalist measures and feelings can be traced back to the Richard Riot, which empowered French Canadians to take control of their province, using the mantra of “Maitres chez nous”, “Masters in our own house” as a rallying cry (Beaver, 2005).
From the Richard Riot, we can see the Maurice Richard was more than just a hockey player, and that hockey was more than just a sport. It is a barometer of national feelings, and sometimes social change begins in the arena and initiates broader transformations. We cannot analyze sports in a bubble, nor can we see history as isolated events. The two are intertwined, and each is critical to a culture’s vitality. For Quebecois, the Richard Riot was a fusion of sports and culture that signified change and social progress.
Works Cited
Farber, M. (1999, November 29). Loud Start to the Quiet Revolution. Sports Illustrated, 124-126. Retrieved April 19, 2009, From EBSCO Host.
Katz, S. (1998). The Richard Riot: a new collection features the inside story of a night to remember in Montreal [Electronic version]. Maclean's, 111(45), 76-79. From (EBSCO Host).
Moment [Electronic version]. (2005). Beaver- Canada's National History Society, 85(1), 8. From EBSCO Host.
Schultz, J. (2009a). Topic 7 Sport’s Golden Age. Lecture presented in KNES 293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Schultz, J. (2009b). Topic 1 Thinking about Sport History. Lecture presented in KNES 293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Schultz, J. (2009c). Topic 2 Sport in the “New World”. Lecture presented in KNES 293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Recommended Readings
Heintzman, R. (1983). The Political Culture of Quebec, 1840-1960 [Electronic version]. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 16(1), 3-59. From JSTOR.
Zeisberger, M. Battlefield Montreal. Hockey News, 33. Retrieved April 19, 2009, from EBSCO Host.
There are few things more important to Canadians than hockey, and in Quebec, the Montreal Canadiens hockey team is followed with near religious fervor. Maurice Richard, a Canadiens star in the 1950’s was more than a hockey player; he was a French Canadian icon. His successes were successes for French Canadians, and the Quebecois followed his every move. It was the suspension of Richard after a questionable call in 1955 that would alter Canadian history forever, and begin Quebec’s Quiet Revolution, in which the French language and culture would prevail over the English. The Richard Riot, as it was called, was Canada’s version of “the shot heard ‘round the world”, an incident that initiated a revolution.
As the star of the Canadiens, Maurice Richard was the object of many harsh plays from opposing players. He was the prototypical athlete-celebrity in Montreal, and was a cultural and political symbol (Schultz, 2009a). French Canadians saw attacks on Richard as attacks on themselves as a people and a culture, and struggled to wrest respect and power away from English Canadians in the political arena. The final straw was the suspension of Richard by Commissioner Clarence Campbell after a questionable hit. Montrealers saw the suspension as unjust and severe, but on a deeper level they believed the suspension was no more than an Anglo-Canadian exerting power over a French Canadian. The schism would be emblematic of the constant battle between English and French in Canada. During Richard’s first game of the suspension, a riot broke out at the arena in protest of Campbell’s attendance at the game. A teargas bomb was detonated inside, sending fans outside to riot on the streets of Montreal. Over $100,000 worth of damage was caused emblematic of a society pushed too far. This is a great example of the dialectic thesis of sports as a product and producer of society (Schultz, 2009b). Montrealers saw the invasion of hockey as the invasion of their culture and fought for their rights. Sports had provoked the riot, and so much of the societal feelings permeated sports. The riot allowed French Canadians to finally come out and express their frustration as the forgotten people of Canada. They saw Richard’s suspension as an intrusion of their rights and saw the opportunity to show cultural pride and power.
The results of the Richard Riot were felt almost immediately, as a new wave of radicalism was sweeping Quebec, characterized by French Canadians coming to power in Quebec’s parliament. The riot is seen as the first exhibition of powerful French nationalism, and led the way for the Quiet Revolution. In this light, we see the function of sports as a precursor for social change. For years, Quebecois were neglected nationally, yet little was done. However, when a French Canadian hockey player was threatened, it seems the entire province of Quebec sprang into action to defend their hero and their values. The Richard Riot is a moment that transcends sports because it was about more than just hockey: it was about defending one’s culture and empowering a people. When a rioter was asked if he loved Richard, he responded: “Richard, who’s he?” The riot was simply the catalyst for the revolution, one that affected hockey fans and non-hockey fans alike (Katz, 1998). The proof of how profound the riot was in Quebec politics can be seen in the long residuals of French nationalism (Schultz, 2009c): since the riot, French prevailed as a language and a culture in Quebec, overpowering English to the point of a proposed secession by Quebec from Canada in 1995. French is the primary language in Quebec, as English is not required. French premiers were elected beginning in 1960 with Jean Lesage, the first election after the riot. Quebec continues to maintain a separate culture than the rest of Canada, using a civil law system as opposed to the British influenced common law system prevalent in other provinces. All these French nationalist measures and feelings can be traced back to the Richard Riot, which empowered French Canadians to take control of their province, using the mantra of “Maitres chez nous”, “Masters in our own house” as a rallying cry (Beaver, 2005).
From the Richard Riot, we can see the Maurice Richard was more than just a hockey player, and that hockey was more than just a sport. It is a barometer of national feelings, and sometimes social change begins in the arena and initiates broader transformations. We cannot analyze sports in a bubble, nor can we see history as isolated events. The two are intertwined, and each is critical to a culture’s vitality. For Quebecois, the Richard Riot was a fusion of sports and culture that signified change and social progress.
Works Cited
Farber, M. (1999, November 29). Loud Start to the Quiet Revolution. Sports Illustrated, 124-126. Retrieved April 19, 2009, From EBSCO Host.
Katz, S. (1998). The Richard Riot: a new collection features the inside story of a night to remember in Montreal [Electronic version]. Maclean's, 111(45), 76-79. From (EBSCO Host).
Moment [Electronic version]. (2005). Beaver- Canada's National History Society, 85(1), 8. From EBSCO Host.
Schultz, J. (2009a). Topic 7 Sport’s Golden Age. Lecture presented in KNES 293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Schultz, J. (2009b). Topic 1 Thinking about Sport History. Lecture presented in KNES 293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Schultz, J. (2009c). Topic 2 Sport in the “New World”. Lecture presented in KNES 293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Recommended Readings
Heintzman, R. (1983). The Political Culture of Quebec, 1840-1960 [Electronic version]. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 16(1), 3-59. From JSTOR.
Zeisberger, M. Battlefield Montreal. Hockey News, 33. Retrieved April 19, 2009, from EBSCO Host.
Monday, April 27, 2009
Why is gymnastics feminine?
Why is gymnastics “feminine”?
Julie Ermoloff
Gymnastics is viewed largely as a feminine sport. How did this belief originate and what is it about gymnastics that makes it feminine? Different aspects of the sport constitute it as a female sport such as the leotards, apparatus, and competition style. Gymnastics is seen as gender appropriate when evaluating a sport as masculine or feminine. Therefore, gymnastics is considered feminine because of the structure and aspects of the sport itself.
In 1912, many people were against women playing sports because they believed it was destroying femininity and negatively impacting females. The overarching belief was that “athletics are making girls bold, masculine and overassertive; that they are destroying the beautiful lines and curves of her figure, and are robbing her of that charm and elusiveness that has so long characterized the female sex” (Sargent 1912). Sports resulted in women with broad shoulders, narrow hips, and muscular arms, back, legs, and chest; all masculine characteristics (Sargent 1912).
Gymnastics combats this movement toward the masculine female in many ways. Gymnasts’ attire clearly depicts the female body and emphasizes aspects of the body that are characteristically female. Leotards are tight fitting and show the shape and almost every curve of the female body. Interestingly, gymnasts wear long sleeve leotards for competition; the purpose is to cover up the gymnasts’ muscular arms which is viewed as masculine. Meanwhile leotards strongly accentuate the hips, buttocks, crotch, thighs and legs, which are viewed as beautiful feminine characteristics. Therefore, gymnastics fights the fear of the masculine female in gymnasts’ attire emphasizing feminine characteristics. Also, gymnastics combats the fear of females loosing the charm and elusiveness defining femininity. The sport of gymnastics is all about showing charm. Beam and floor routines involve putting on a show in that successful gymnasts will smile and show that they are having fun. Dance is a crucial aspect of a gymnasts’ floor routine and overall gymnastics involves striving for perfection with perfect form and pointy toes and executing skills naturally, easily, and beautifully. Therefore, the feminine aspects of charm and elusiveness are expressed through gymnastics.
During the same time period, people believed that men’s athletics should be modified to meet the requirements of women because women cannot endure mental or physical strain like men can (Sargent 1912). When comparing men’s and women’s gymnastics, men’s apparatus involves strength and muscular endurance while women’s apparatus focuses more on dance, balance, and grace. Women’s floor routines involve dancing and coordinating with music, while men’s floor routines focus on tumbling. It seems that women’s gymnastics is modified men’s gymnastics in that men have more strength apparatus and more events (6) while women’s gymnastics involves less physical strength and only 4 events. Because women’s gymnastics involves less strength, this indicates the underlying belief that women cannot handle physical strain as well as men and that women are inferior physically.
A code of conduct was implemented into women’s sports during the 1940’s-50’s that set standards for women’s athletics. One rule involved women’s appearance and dress during play: “boyish bobs are not permissible and in general your hair should be well groomed at all times with longer hair preferable to short hair cuts. Lipstick should always be on” (Lesko 2005). This code of conduct is clearly seen in gymnastics. Women ensure that their hair is in place and looks neat and very presentable. Hair is usually tied back tightly and secured with hairspray without flyaways and her ponytail is controlled and neat. Women also wear makeup and sparkles during competition; especially the women’s Olympic team. This follows the code of conduct and how the rule still stands in gymnastics.
In the early years of women’s sport from 1865 to 1920, many prevailing standards and beliefs about women’s roles were challenged as a result of the beginnings of women in sport. The Victorian standard of women involved “women must at all times remain in control of their actions and behavior…physical contact challenged accepted conventions for women” (Davies 2007). Control of skills and safe execution of skills is essential in gymnastics. Successful gymnasts show control of their bodies in terms of executing skills and perfect form. Also, physical contact (which is seen as a masculine trait) is absent in gymnastics; the sport is individual and does not involve contact between two individuals. Therefore, gymnastics does not challenge standards of women’s roles in society.
The 1970’s involved the quest for equality in women’s sport and “gender appropriate” sports involving “not appropriate” vs. “wholly appropriate” views were seen. “Not appropriate” sports included “any attempt to physically subdue the opponent by bodily contact and direct application of bodily force to a heavy object” (Schultz, 2007). “Wholly appropriate” sports involve “attempts to project the body into or through space in aesthetically pleasing patterns and utilization of a manufactured device to facilitate bodily movement” (Schultz, 2007). Gymnastics is clearly viewed as a wholly appropriate sport in that gymnastics involves performing skills with excellent execution and with beauty and ease. Also, the apparatuses aid in the performance of skills and gymnastics involves performing skills on the bars, beam, floor, and vault to execute skills. Gymnastics does not involve bodily contact or bodily application to a heavy object; therefore, gymnastics would be considered a completely appropriate sport for women.
During the same time, the public viewed women’s athletics in a certain light and equated certain sports with women. “The public almost invariably thought of women’s athletics in terms of the presence or absence of ‘femininity’, they tended to equate women’s sports with expressions of beauty rather than strength…football and boxing as men’s sports and water ballet and rhythmic gymnastics as appropriate women’s sports” (Rader, 2004). Clearly, gymnastics is viewed as feminine in that the sport involves expressions of beauty instead of emphasizing strength.
All in all, gymnastics is viewed as a feminine sport because of the structure and different aspects of the sport itself. Gymnastics combats the belief that sports are making females masculine by ruining the female body and feminine charm because leotards emphasize feminine characteristics and gymnastics involves showing beauty and charm. Women’s gymnastics can be viewed as modified men’s gymnastics; this implies female’s inferiority to males. Gymnastics abides by the code of conduct originating in the 1940s and 50s. Gymnastics is considered a “wholly appropriate” sport because it involves aesthetically pleasing body projections and using a device to help movement. Gymnastics is seen as a women sport because it shows the presence of femininity from beauty.
Recommended Readings:
Meier, M. (2008). Gender Equity, Sport and Development. Swiss Academy for Development (SAD). Retrieved March 7, 2009, from http://www.sportanddev.org/learnmore/sport_and_gender/promoting_gender_equity through_sport/index.cfm?uNewsID=65.
(1894, August 20). Outdoor Sports for Women. New York Times. Retrieved from http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9807E5DB1730E033A25753C2A96E9C 94659ED7CF.
References
Davies, R.O. (2007). Sports and the emergence of modern America. In R.O. Davies, Sports in American life: A history (pp. 83-108). Maiden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Lesko, J. (2005). All American Girls Professional Baseball: League Rules of Conduct. Retrieved March 7, 2009, from http://www.aagpbl.org/league/conduct.cfm.
Rader, B.G. (2004). The quest for equity in women’s sports. In B.G. Rader, American Sports: From the age of folk games to the age of televised sports, 5th ed. (pp. 330-343). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sargent, D. S. (1912/2007). Are athletics making girls too masculine? In J. O’Reilly and S.K. Cahn, eds. Women and sports in the United States: A documentary Reader. Boston: Northeaster University Press.
Schultz, J. (2007). Topic 15: The 1970’s Quest for Equity in Women’s Sport and One Day in
September. Lecture presented in KNES 293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Julie Ermoloff
Gymnastics is viewed largely as a feminine sport. How did this belief originate and what is it about gymnastics that makes it feminine? Different aspects of the sport constitute it as a female sport such as the leotards, apparatus, and competition style. Gymnastics is seen as gender appropriate when evaluating a sport as masculine or feminine. Therefore, gymnastics is considered feminine because of the structure and aspects of the sport itself.
In 1912, many people were against women playing sports because they believed it was destroying femininity and negatively impacting females. The overarching belief was that “athletics are making girls bold, masculine and overassertive; that they are destroying the beautiful lines and curves of her figure, and are robbing her of that charm and elusiveness that has so long characterized the female sex” (Sargent 1912). Sports resulted in women with broad shoulders, narrow hips, and muscular arms, back, legs, and chest; all masculine characteristics (Sargent 1912).
Gymnastics combats this movement toward the masculine female in many ways. Gymnasts’ attire clearly depicts the female body and emphasizes aspects of the body that are characteristically female. Leotards are tight fitting and show the shape and almost every curve of the female body. Interestingly, gymnasts wear long sleeve leotards for competition; the purpose is to cover up the gymnasts’ muscular arms which is viewed as masculine. Meanwhile leotards strongly accentuate the hips, buttocks, crotch, thighs and legs, which are viewed as beautiful feminine characteristics. Therefore, gymnastics fights the fear of the masculine female in gymnasts’ attire emphasizing feminine characteristics. Also, gymnastics combats the fear of females loosing the charm and elusiveness defining femininity. The sport of gymnastics is all about showing charm. Beam and floor routines involve putting on a show in that successful gymnasts will smile and show that they are having fun. Dance is a crucial aspect of a gymnasts’ floor routine and overall gymnastics involves striving for perfection with perfect form and pointy toes and executing skills naturally, easily, and beautifully. Therefore, the feminine aspects of charm and elusiveness are expressed through gymnastics.
During the same time period, people believed that men’s athletics should be modified to meet the requirements of women because women cannot endure mental or physical strain like men can (Sargent 1912). When comparing men’s and women’s gymnastics, men’s apparatus involves strength and muscular endurance while women’s apparatus focuses more on dance, balance, and grace. Women’s floor routines involve dancing and coordinating with music, while men’s floor routines focus on tumbling. It seems that women’s gymnastics is modified men’s gymnastics in that men have more strength apparatus and more events (6) while women’s gymnastics involves less physical strength and only 4 events. Because women’s gymnastics involves less strength, this indicates the underlying belief that women cannot handle physical strain as well as men and that women are inferior physically.
A code of conduct was implemented into women’s sports during the 1940’s-50’s that set standards for women’s athletics. One rule involved women’s appearance and dress during play: “boyish bobs are not permissible and in general your hair should be well groomed at all times with longer hair preferable to short hair cuts. Lipstick should always be on” (Lesko 2005). This code of conduct is clearly seen in gymnastics. Women ensure that their hair is in place and looks neat and very presentable. Hair is usually tied back tightly and secured with hairspray without flyaways and her ponytail is controlled and neat. Women also wear makeup and sparkles during competition; especially the women’s Olympic team. This follows the code of conduct and how the rule still stands in gymnastics.
In the early years of women’s sport from 1865 to 1920, many prevailing standards and beliefs about women’s roles were challenged as a result of the beginnings of women in sport. The Victorian standard of women involved “women must at all times remain in control of their actions and behavior…physical contact challenged accepted conventions for women” (Davies 2007). Control of skills and safe execution of skills is essential in gymnastics. Successful gymnasts show control of their bodies in terms of executing skills and perfect form. Also, physical contact (which is seen as a masculine trait) is absent in gymnastics; the sport is individual and does not involve contact between two individuals. Therefore, gymnastics does not challenge standards of women’s roles in society.
The 1970’s involved the quest for equality in women’s sport and “gender appropriate” sports involving “not appropriate” vs. “wholly appropriate” views were seen. “Not appropriate” sports included “any attempt to physically subdue the opponent by bodily contact and direct application of bodily force to a heavy object” (Schultz, 2007). “Wholly appropriate” sports involve “attempts to project the body into or through space in aesthetically pleasing patterns and utilization of a manufactured device to facilitate bodily movement” (Schultz, 2007). Gymnastics is clearly viewed as a wholly appropriate sport in that gymnastics involves performing skills with excellent execution and with beauty and ease. Also, the apparatuses aid in the performance of skills and gymnastics involves performing skills on the bars, beam, floor, and vault to execute skills. Gymnastics does not involve bodily contact or bodily application to a heavy object; therefore, gymnastics would be considered a completely appropriate sport for women.
During the same time, the public viewed women’s athletics in a certain light and equated certain sports with women. “The public almost invariably thought of women’s athletics in terms of the presence or absence of ‘femininity’, they tended to equate women’s sports with expressions of beauty rather than strength…football and boxing as men’s sports and water ballet and rhythmic gymnastics as appropriate women’s sports” (Rader, 2004). Clearly, gymnastics is viewed as feminine in that the sport involves expressions of beauty instead of emphasizing strength.
All in all, gymnastics is viewed as a feminine sport because of the structure and different aspects of the sport itself. Gymnastics combats the belief that sports are making females masculine by ruining the female body and feminine charm because leotards emphasize feminine characteristics and gymnastics involves showing beauty and charm. Women’s gymnastics can be viewed as modified men’s gymnastics; this implies female’s inferiority to males. Gymnastics abides by the code of conduct originating in the 1940s and 50s. Gymnastics is considered a “wholly appropriate” sport because it involves aesthetically pleasing body projections and using a device to help movement. Gymnastics is seen as a women sport because it shows the presence of femininity from beauty.
Recommended Readings:
Meier, M. (2008). Gender Equity, Sport and Development. Swiss Academy for Development (SAD). Retrieved March 7, 2009, from http://www.sportanddev.org/learnmore/sport_and_gender/promoting_gender_equity through_sport/index.cfm?uNewsID=65.
(1894, August 20). Outdoor Sports for Women. New York Times. Retrieved from http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9807E5DB1730E033A25753C2A96E9C 94659ED7CF.
References
Davies, R.O. (2007). Sports and the emergence of modern America. In R.O. Davies, Sports in American life: A history (pp. 83-108). Maiden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Lesko, J. (2005). All American Girls Professional Baseball: League Rules of Conduct. Retrieved March 7, 2009, from http://www.aagpbl.org/league/conduct.cfm.
Rader, B.G. (2004). The quest for equity in women’s sports. In B.G. Rader, American Sports: From the age of folk games to the age of televised sports, 5th ed. (pp. 330-343). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sargent, D. S. (1912/2007). Are athletics making girls too masculine? In J. O’Reilly and S.K. Cahn, eds. Women and sports in the United States: A documentary Reader. Boston: Northeaster University Press.
Schultz, J. (2007). Topic 15: The 1970’s Quest for Equity in Women’s Sport and One Day in
September. Lecture presented in KNES 293. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
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